Underepresentation of Women in Positons of Authority.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Introduction The focus of this chapter is to review critically and synthesize relevant knowledge about how and when specific levels of instruments and/ or policy interventions work to empower women and thereby increase gender equality, as stated by the World Bank (2001). Decision-making procedures should be changed to make room for female influences, styles and characteristics as well as in implementation. Participation of women in decision-making processes should the corner stone of Zimbabwe’s ethos as a democratic nation. Zimbabwe should take an active role in promoting gender balance in decision-making.It is important to have balanced participation of women and men at all levels of decision making. Gender equality is central to human development and to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as well as to the enhancement of development effectiveness, (UNDP, 2011). MDGs attach great importance to gender equality and women's empowerment in all facets of life. Gender mainstreaming is one of the strategies that the UN utilises to promote the integration of gender perspectives into the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes (UNDP, 2011).Gender equity is giving boys and girls, women and men equal opportunities in the utilisation of personal capabilities to realize full human rights (UNDP, 2011). There are many studies that have been done by scholars across the world to find association between women empowerment and socio- economic performance. There is empirical evidence that the promotion of gender equity leads to better economic performance of the concerned societies.One such study was done by Stephan Klasen who said that gender gaps undermined â€Å"the ability of women to be effective agents of economic process. Societies with greater female employment opportunities are less prone to corruption and poor governance†, (Klasen, 2006:151). 2. 2 Overview of globa l efforts on gender equality Despite efforts made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, women are still underrepresented in many government and non-government organizations, particularly in positions of power and leadership.According to Campbell (2003:7-8), women’s current position is the result of the historical fact that Zimbabwe’s transition from white colonial rule did not dismantle the structures of patriarchy or oppression, which happen to serve the current regime just as well. 2. 3 Historical Background of Gender Equality According to a UN report of 1997, gender equality, also known as sex equality or sexual equality, is the goal of the equality of the genders, stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality.This goal includes making women’s rights equal to men's and also making men’s rights equal to women's. 1972-1980s Although the first United Nations Conference on the Human Env ironment in Stockholm, 1972 saw the establishment of the UN Environment Program (UNEP), officially linked the physical environment and society in its title, in the 1960s and 1970s social issues were still largely disconnected from environmental policies and programs.When the World Conservation Strategy living resource conservation for sustainable development the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was launched in 1980, the focus of that document on social-environmental linkages still was presented in a gender-neutral way. 1985The Third United Nations Women’s Conference in Nairobi in 1985, however, was among the first international forum that made explicit the linkages between sustainable development and women’s involvement and empowerment as well as gender equality and equity. In the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, the environment was included as an area of concern for women. During the Nairobi conference in 1985, UNEP hosted a special Session on Women and the Environment, and UNEP’s Senior Women Advisors Group (SWAG) was established to advice the organization on bringing a gender perspective in its environmental program. 990s In the run-up to the World Summit of 2002, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCED, held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, the UN Secretariat for UNCED, UNEP and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) as well as NGOs such as WEDO and World Wildlife Fund, undertook a number of advocacy activities that reflected the conclusions reached at the 1985 Nairobi Non-governmental Organization-Forum workshops, that stated: â€Å"The growth of women’s power and the sustainability of development are ecologically tied. Environmental Liaison Centre (ELC, 1985). They underlined that women not only bear the highest costs of environmental problems, but as managers of primary resources, also have the greatest potential for contributing to the solution of the crisis. The advocacy activities during the UNCED process resulted in a reasonably Agenda 21, not only including more than 145 references to the specific roles and positions of women in environment and sustainable development, but also a separate Chapter 24 entitled ‘Global action for women towards sustainable development’.This chapter acknowledges the need for a broad participation of women as major group at all governmental levels and in all UN agencies related activities in sustainable development, as well as the need for the integration of a gender perspective on sustainable development planning and implementation. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995) identified environment as one of twelve critical areas for women.Section K of the Beijing Platform for Action, on women and the environment, asserted that â€Å"women have an essential role to play in the development of sus tainable and ecologically sound consumption and production patterns and approaches to natural resource management† (paragraph 246). 2000s Five years later, at the Millennium Summit in New York, world leaders promised in the Millennium Declaration â€Å"to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable†.This vision was reflected in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), including MDG 1, eradicate extreme poverty, MDG 3 promote gender equality and empower women, and MDG 7 ensure environmental sustainability. However, until now, in governmental reporting on MDG 7 environmental linkages to gender equality are neglected. As input for the World Summit on Sustainable Development, women as major group prepared two documents (ECOSOC/UN, 2001 and 2002), in which progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 from a gender perspective was reviewed.It was concluded th at at international, national and local levels important steps had been taken, but that these were rather scattered and that most were of an ad hoc character. The review showed that there has been no real integration of gender issues into global environment and sustainable development policies and activities, let alone a thorough mainstreaming of gender concerns into these areas. Instead of real implementation, more commitments were made.Principle 20 of the Johannesburg Declaration of the World Summit on sustainable Development (2002) reads: â€Å"We are committed to ensure that women’s empowerment and emancipation, and gender equality are integrated in all activities encompassed within Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. † Among the 153 paragraphs of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) 30 refer to gender aspects.These deal with: benefits of sustainable development to women; the elimination of violence an d discrimination; access to health services; access to land and other resources (particularly in Africa); the enhancement of the role of women in resources management; education for all; participation of women; gender mainstreaming; and gender specific information and data. Major advocacy efforts resulted in a decision by the Commission on Sustainable Development at its 11th session in 2003 to make gender a cross-cutting issue in all its upcoming work up until 2015.In a global context in which gender inequality proves to be one of the most pervasive forms of inequality (UNDP, 2005), the international community during the 10-year Review of the Beijing Platform for Action, recommitted itself to the global goal of gender equality and the empowerment of women. One of the areas of disparity between males and females is related to the difference in their employment status which is manifested by occupational segregation, gender-based wage gaps, and women’s disproportionate represent ation in informal employment, unpaid work and higher unemployment rates (UNFPA, 2005).As women in developing countries have low status in the community, the activities they perform tend to be valued less; and women’s low status is also perpetuated through the low value placed on their activities (March et al. , 1999). According to the millennium indicators data base of the United Nations, cited in the UNFPA (2005), the percentage of parliamentary seats held by women in 2005 was 16% at world level, 21% in developed countries, and 14% in developing countries.This low representation of women in national parliaments could be due to type of electoral systems in different countries, women’s social and economic status, socio-cultural traditions and beliefs about women’s place in the family and society, and women’s double burden of work and family responsibilities (UNFPA, 2005). Beijing Platform for Action (1995) called on governments to take measures to ensure w omen’s equal access to and full participation in, power structures and decision-making.The outcome document of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly (2000) reiterated the need to increase the representation of women. The UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) affirmed the need to include women in decision-making with regard to issues of peace and security. In 2006 the 50th Session of the Commission on the Status of Women adopted the agreed-upon conclusions on the equal participation of women and men in decision-making processes, (UN/DAW, 2007).Other important commitments related to women’s political participation in Africa include: Article 4 (l) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union, the Dakar Platform for Action (1994); the African Plan of Action to Accelerate the Implementation of the Dakar and Beijing Platforms for Action for the Advancement of Women (1999); the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003); and the African Union’s Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (2004).In Zimbabwe gender disparities characterise all aspects of development with Zimbabwe ranked at â€Å"130 in the global gender-related development index according to the (Human Development Report, 2007/2008), reflecting the generally low status of women with respect to access, control and ownership of economic resources and positions in decision-making processes†.This is despite the promulgation of various laws, ratification and accession to regional and international declarations, conventions and protocols earmarked for creating an enabling environment for the accomplishment of justice and equality between men and women. The status of women in Zimbabwe has been noticeably affected by the economic problems facing the country as well as the persistence of discriminatory practices.The country has introduced â€Å"policy and legal measures to promote gender equ ality including the National Gender Policy and specific domestic violence legislation†, (UN, 2010); but in Zimbabwe women trail behind men on measures of economic empowerment â€Å"such as labour force participation, wage equality and representation in senior positions†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). A key barrier to gender equality is the discrimination stemming from the â€Å"dual system of law, where customary laws continue to disadvantage women, particularly in the family†, (Thabethe, 2011:8).Zimbabwe adopted â€Å"women in power† and â€Å"decision-making† as two of its priority areas under the Beijing Declaration (1995). The report by UNFPA (2010) notes that â€Å"the achievements made by Zimbabwe in terms of promoting gender equality at national level such as the appointment of the first female Vice-president in 2005, the drafting and launching of the National Gender Policy in 2004 and the enacting of progressive legislation such the Dom estic Violence Act and the Sexual Discrimination Act were landmark decisions.Labour laws have also been amended to reflect gender equality priorities. 2. 4 The Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2004) According to the Republic of Zimbabwe, (2004), the vision of this policy is to have a â€Å"society in Zimbabwe where there is economic, political, religious and social equality and equity among women and men in all spheres of life and at all levels†. It was said that it anchored on the protection and respect of the rights of the individual.The Zimbabwe government went further highlighting that â€Å"the policy’s goals is to eliminate all negative economic, social and political policies, cultural and religious practices that impede equality and equity of the sexes; to mainstream gender in all aspect of the development process and to ensure sustainable equity, equality and empowerment of women and men in Zimbabwe in all spheres of life†, (Republic of Zimbabwe, 2004).I n 1997, together with other SADC governments, Zimbabwe signed the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development together with its Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children sets out to enhance equal participation of women and men in national development. Based on these national, regional and international instruments, the National Gender Policy will facilitate the designing and implementation of policies that redress gender imbalances in all spheres and levels of life as part of fulfilling its commitments.The National Gender Policy recognises the fact that women constitute more than 52 per cent of the population of Zimbabwe. It is therefore important that their representation and participation in the development process should be commensurate with this numerical reality. 2. 4. 2 Policy principles The Zimbabwe government (2004) indicated that based on the â€Å"national ethos of democracy, unity, equity, development and self-sufficiency, sets out to enhance equal participation of women and men in national development†.The policy was said to be in line with the need for economic growth, sustainable development, social justice and recognition and respect of human rights. However it is critical to recognise that gender discrimination has its basis in cultural values, beliefs and practices. In this regard, the National Gender Policy is premised on the following principles: †¢ A recognition that issues of development, human development in particular are concerned with equity, equality, participation, association, social justice and human rights. Gender discrimination is a serious impediment to development that affects the whole country and thus needs to be eliminated through appropriate individual and collective strategies. †¢ The prevalence and demonstration of political will and commitment to foster growth and enhance equity is a prerequisite to ensure the successful implementation of the National Gender Policy. †¢ A participatory approach that entails broad consultation and involvement of both women and men in all spheres of development guarantees success of the transformation of society to promote democracy, equality and equity between women and men. All Government policies must acknowledge women and men as equal and important human resources for development. This equality and equity of women and men is anchored on the protection and respect of the rights of the individual. 2. 5 Women in Zimbabwe Women’s status in Zimbabwe has been significantly affected by the economic problems facing the country as well as the persistence of discriminatory practices. The country has introduced policy and legal measures to promote gender equality including National Gender Policy and specific domestic violence legislation, (UN, 2010).Although Zimbabwe has achieved gender parity in primary school education, there remains a gender gap in secondary and tertiary education enrolments. Further, wom en trail behind men on measures of economic empowerment, such as â€Å"labour force participation, wage equality and representation in senior positions†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). A key barrier to gender equality is the discrimination stemming from the â€Å"dual system of law, where customary laws continue to disadvantage women, particularly in the family†, (Thabethe, 2011:8). . 6 Laws, Policies and Frameworks to Ensure Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls, (UN/ZIMBABWE, 2012). The frameworks will contribute to progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, specifically MDG 3: promote gender equality and empower women. To address this challenge, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCT) will support key governance institutions in policy and legislative formulation and implementation.Support will, therefore, be rendered to Government to put in place laws and policies that increase the participation of wom en in decision-making bodies and positions in both the private and public sectors. Moreover, the UN will support measures to ensure that the percentage of the national budget allocated to women and girls’ programs is increased (UN/Zimbabwe, 2012). The UN will work towards ensuring ratification, domestication, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of laws and policies that promote gender equality, human rights, and women and girls empowerment.Efforts will be made to mainstream gender into all Zimbabwe United Nations Development Assistance Framework (ZUNDAF) outcomes using a cross sectoral approach. An estimated amount of USD 20 million will be sourced from the UNCT and development partners for this outcome (UN/Zimbabwe, 2012). In Zimbabwe, gender disparities characterise all aspects of development, with Zimbabwe ranked at 130 in the global gender related development index according to the Human Development Report 2007/2008, reflecting the generally low status of women with respect to access, control and ownership of economic resources and positions in decision-making processes.This is despite the promulgation of various laws and the signature, ratification and accession to several regional and international declarations, conventions and protocols aimed at creating an enabling environment for the attainment of equity and equality between men and women. 2. 7 Structures that enhances subordination of Women in Politics The traditional female/male roles are deeply ingrained and glorified in all Zimbabwean languages, in education, the mass media, and advertising.The society’s perception of women is for the most part negative with the best women as mothers, and their capabilities and capacities going virtually unnoticed (Obura, 1991). Such sex stereotypes and social prejudices are inappropriate in the present society where female/male roles and male-headed families are no longer the norm. According to the United Nations (2000), sex stereo-types a re among the most firmly entrenched obstacles to the elimination of discrimination, and are largely responsible for the denigration of the role and potential of women in society. The subordinate osition of women in the society seems to legitimize their exclusion from participation in political and decision making processes. Many stories depict women as disloyal, disagreeable, untrustworthy, and even gullible (Kabira and Nzioki, 1995:57). Even today women continue to be left out of official records and when recognised, they are addressed as those who need welfare assistance rather than actors in the historical process. The heavy under-representation of women in political life and most decision making processes in Zimbabwe needs to be closely investigated.Karl (1995:185) explores some of the factors affecting women’s political participation worldwide. Among the factors she cites include: household status; work related rights (maternity leave, job security, provision of child-ca re); employment and remuneration; double burden of work; education and literacy; access to financial resources; legal rights; traditions, cultural attitudes and religion; socialization and self-reliance; violence against women; the mass media; health; ability to control fertility.Cooper and Davidson (1982:44) sought to study the problems that women in leadership positions generally face. They found that women face stress from both the work, home and social environments. In addition, women have to acquire male leadership and managerial skills (for example, being aggressive, assertive, confident), as well as multiple demands in running a career and a family. Other sources of stress include difficult working relationships with male bosses and colleagues, sexual harassment, limited opportunities for promotion and career development.The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) (2003) notes that gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To e nsure this fairness, measures must often be available to compensate for historical and political disadvantages that prevent women from otherwise operating on a levelled playing field with men. Equity leads to equality. Gender equality implies that women and men enjoy the same status.Gender equality means that women and men have equal opportunities for realizing their full human rights and potential to contribute to political, economic, social and cultural development, and to benefit from results thereof. Gender equality includes both quantitative and qualitative aspects. 2. 8 Enhancing Women’s Participation in Political Power Structures and Decision-Making A survey carried out among national parliaments in the world by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (1997) revealed that women make up less than 5 per cent of world’s heads of state, heads of major corporations, and top positions in international organizations.Five years down the line, the IPU has established that women ar e not just behind in political and managerial equity, they are a long way behind. Politics is everyone’s business and affects the lives of each of us. The more women are associated in numbers in political decision making process in governments, the more they can change the modalities and outcomes of policies. 2. 9 Discriminatory Family Code There is no legal discrimination against women and girls with respect to inheritance rights.In 1997, the Administration of Estates Act was amended to make the surviving spouse and the children of a deceased person as his or her major beneficiaries, as opposed to their heir who was mainly the eldest son. The Act provides that the â€Å"matrimonial home, whatever the system of tenure under which it was held and wherever it may be situated, remains with the surviving spouse. This includes household goods and effects†, (United Nations, 1996:60). The Act applies to all marriages, civil and customary, (United Nations Committee, 2010:12).D espite these laws, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that â€Å"women are still denied their inheritance rights in practice due to discriminatory attitudes, women’s’ lack of awareness of their rights or women’s’ lack of resources to claim their rights†, (Bird et al, 2004:168). The Chronic Poverty Research Centre reports that only â€Å"37. 31 % of widows inherited majority of assets after their spouses in 2005/2006†, (Chronic Poverty Research Centre, 2011:20). Women’s position in the family can also be gleaned from their participation in household decision making.Data from the 1999 Demographic Health Survey provides a snapshot of gender equality in household decision making in Zimbabwe. For large household purchases, 42% of married women reported that â€Å"decisions were made jointly with their husbands, 36% reported that decisions were made solely by their husbands and 16% reported decision were made solely by them selves†, (Demographic Health Survey Zimbabwe, 1999). Furthermore, discriminatory attitudes and practices of authorities place further barriers in women’s access to justice.For instance, according to the US Department of State, authorities generally consider domestic violence to be a private matter, (United State Department, 2009). With respect to prosecutions of marital rape, the government reports that the prosecution of marital rape requires the consent of the Attorney General which may discourage women from reporting. Further, entrenched institutional and societal attitudes that deny marital rape as a form of violence against women also prevent women from seeking justice, (United Nations, 2010:13-14).Female genital mutilation is not widespread in Zimbabwe, but is practised by the Remba ethnic group, which represents a small proportion of the population. Within this group, mutilation is combined with infibulations, which involves closing the outer lips of the vulva, ( US Department of State 2002. Limitations on women’s reproductive rights also infringes upon women’s physical integrity in Zimbabwe. Abortion in Zimbabwe is permitted to save a woman’s life or health, in the event of rape or incest or due to foetal impairment. It is not permitted on request or on social or economic grounds, (United Nations Population Division, 2007).The 2006 Demographic and Health Survey found that overall 60% of married women use contraception and 58 % use modern methods of contraception, (Demographic Health Survey, 2006). 2. 9. 1 Son Bias Gender disaggregated data on rates of infant mortality and early childhood nutrition are not available for Zimbabwe. With respect to access to education, the World Economic Forum reports that Zimbabwe has reached gender parity in primary school enrolments which indicates that there is no preferential treatment of sons with respect to primary school education.However, a gender gap persists in secondary and tert iary education enrolments, suggesting that â€Å"the education of sons continues to be more highly valued than the education of daughters†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). Further, the government reported that â€Å"women and girls carry the primary burden of care in the context of HIV which suggests that daughter in Zimbabwe may experience greater time poverty compared to sons†, (United Nations 2010:48). Gender inequality is embedded in the patriarchal, social, religious and cultural stereotypes in Zimbabwean life.UNFPA (2008) indicated that â€Å"the continued presence of long standing cultural and traditional practices that discriminate against women have constrained the progress of achieving gender equality†. Gender inequality hurts the interest not only of women but also of men through societal connections. It often stems from social structures that institutionalise conceptions of gender differences. Cultural stereotypes are ingrained in â€Å"both men a nd women and these stereotypes are possible explanation for gender inequality† (Rhoads et al, 1996:130).McFadden (2004:42) proposes that women have been traditionally viewed as â€Å"being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations which require such skills†. While these skills are culturally valued they were typically associated with domesticity so occupations requiring these same skills are not economically valued. Men have â€Å"traditionally been viewed as the breadwinners so jobs held by men have been historically economically valued† (McFadden, 2004:42).However, these practices and public attitudes towards the advancement of women and gender equality have not changed at the same pace as policy and institutional frameworks. Mtintso (1999:37) observes and describes the under-representation and discrimination against women as an â€Å"anathema to democracy†. She argues that â€Å"socialisation of women right from childhood directs them away from activities of power. Women tend to be less ambitious and internalises society’s expectation that they are not suited to policy making positions†. (Mtintso, 1999:37).Cooper et al (1994:92) supports Mtintso’s argument when he mentions that â€Å"it starts from the family level where the traditionally designated leader is a man†. The same principle is â€Å"still dominant in our society† (Cooper et al, 1994:92). Leary et al (1994:216) reiterates that â€Å"women have the will but are discriminated against by men in authority who refuse to promote them and by legislation which limit their opportunities†. Because of this ideology, very few women made it in politics. McFadden (1994†142) paints patriarchy as a â€Å"huge setback for women in Zimbabwe, as the society is patriarchal in nature†.Morley (2005:112) alludes to the fact that â€Å"this societal norm leaves out women from the corridors of power and men are left to address issues that mostly affect women such as exploitation, marginalisation, powerlessness, and violence†. Watson (2009:87-93) affirms that â€Å"the under-representation of women remains a big concern in decision making processes and will continue to seriously undermine the realization of equitability in womanhood†. Mtintso (1999:40) argues that â€Å"patriarchal attitudes have become so entrenched that they are literally taken as natural†.She further maintains that â€Å"the government decision bodies are so patriarchal and power is so obvious, women are in danger of being swallowed by its culture, ethos, values and priorities. † This point was supported by Cooper et al (1994) when they argue that â€Å"women fear moving against the mainstream and in that way find themselves compromising and promoting the very patriarchal agenda†. According to Campbell (2003:285), the patriarchal model of the liberation struggle was â€Å"the basis upon which the Afri can government was couched and had been entrenched into law†.Cheater and Gaidzanwa (1996:197) postulate that â€Å"tradition was employed in the first decade of Zimbabwe’s independence to spread the general message of women’s re-subordination†. Black women were considered as â€Å"chattels of black men† (Zuidberg, McFaddens and Chigudu, 2004; 112). Culture prevents women from participating in decision-making processes and the distinction is critical to make in light of the gender differences rooted in the culture and history of Zimbabwe where women have been marginalised in decision-making positions.Cooper et al (1994:100) argued that â€Å"cultural barriers seem to be difficult to remove since they are subtly enforced by both men and women, they are seen as immutable, but one should bear in mind that culture is dynamic, it needs programmes to advocate for popular participation of women in politics from high schools and influence the school curricu la in this line†. Cheater and Gaidzanwa (1996:189-200) perceive traditional roles of men and women as â€Å"still in place due to gender stereotype†.Women still find it challenging to stand and compete with men in the political arena. Cheater et al (1996:189-200) noted the idea of a woman â€Å"to stand to compete with men as unacceptable behaviour, an unheard of kind of a scenario†. 2. 10 Conclusion Given the above scenarios, there is need to scrutinize the conditions under which women are subjected to involvement, participation, and inclusion in key decision-making processes in Zimbabwe and specifically it’s Cabinet.This is because, despite the significant advances made in the policy and legislative reforms arena, the position of women in decision-making positions in the Cabinet of Zimbabwe remains relatively low and is extraordinarily under-representative of women in the highest structures of governance. Gender equality has dominated international debat e on development issues with many intervention mechanisms being invented but to no avail. This demonstrates a gap between policy formulation and the causes of the challenge they are intended to address. Herein lays the core of the problem i. e. the gap between policy and actual implementation.

Billing Management System C++

Restaurant Billing Management System Based on: Calculation of total bill on the basis of order placed Abhishek Singh, RB6801B39, 10804172 Shivam Grover, RB6801B40, 10801101 Btech-ECE, Lovely Professional University Address sam. [email  protected] com [email  protected] com Submitted to: Mr. Raj Karan Singh Lovely Professional University ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to all those people, how helped me in completing this project successfully; this work of creation wouldn’t have been possible without their kind help, cooperation and extended support.First and foremost sincere thanks to my project guide Mr. Raj Karan SIngh, for their valuable guidance for completion of this work and also for providing the necessary facilities and support. Also I sincerely thanks to all the faculties and coordinator, whose valuable suggestions, support and motivation provided me, required strength for accomplishment of this term paper. -Shivam Grover, Abhi shek Singh Contents: †¢ Introduction †¢ About the Billing Management System. †¢ Source code Advantages †¢ Programming test †¢ Bibliography INTRODUCTION C++ (pronounced â€Å"See plus plus†) is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-purpose programming language. It is regarded as a middle-level language, as it comprises a combination of both high-level and low-level language features. [1] It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs as an enhancement to the C programming language and originally named â€Å"C with Classes†.It was renamed to C++ in 1983. C++ is widely used in the software industry, and remains one of the most popular languages ever created. Some of its application domains include systems software, application software, device drivers, embedded software, high-performance server and client applications, and entertainment software such as video games. Several groups provide both free a nd proprietary C++ compiler software, including the GNU Project, Microsoft, Intel, Borland and others.C++ is also used for hardware design, where design is initially described in C++, then analyzed, architecturally constrained, and scheduled to create a register transfer level hardware description language via high-level synthesis. The language began as enhancements to C, first adding classes, then virtual functions, operator overloading, multiple inheritance, templates, and exception handling among other features. After years of development, the C++ programming language standard was ratified in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998.That standard is still current, but is amended by the 2003 technical corrigendum, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. The next standard version (known informally as C++0x) is in development. About Billing Management System: At time of purchasing items we use bill book for easy billing and for records include the identification of the customer and other relevant information that ar e passed onto the billing system. The billing system also receives records from other carriers (such as a long distance service provider, or a roaming partner).Here in our program, only the authoritarian can operate the software by putting a password. [pic] He then chooses to enter the system or to exit. [pic] Further he can enter the number of customers, followed by the details of each user like: [pic] [pic] Number of items, Name of the particular item, Price and Quantity. [pic] The user is then displayed with a bill of customer 1 with date and time. [pic] Where he has to pay equal or more than the total amount, otherwise he would not accept. pic] The program will further display the change and then a screen with the next customer follows. After when the user is done with the billing and payment, he gets an option either to continue with the further customers or to exit. [pic] If we continue, the user will start again giving the password.Source Code: #include #include #include #inc lude #include #include class bill_book { public: char name[20]; char add[30]; int bill_no,s_no; public: void getdata(int i) { s_no=0; clrscr(); cout

You can write one that fits Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

You can write one that fits - Essay Example Their works of arts are influenced directly by nature. For instance, Themistokles on his view of Laerdalsoren predominantly employs the use of organic shapes. The southern landscape has some elements of irregularity or rounded forms as directly viewed in the vegetation, rocks, ocean clouds and the sky. The mountain ridges are seen in the background bear curving terrains. The following are the examples of the pieces of art from the two artists. On the other hand, Roberts in his art also considered organic shapes as clearly seen in his work. The terrain around the temple bear smooth curving. The few palm trees seen near the temple have long curving branches. Consequently, the numerously green cover vegetation beneath the tall palms is well represented in the artwork. The irregular bayonet shaped leaves of the palms frond flutter in the sea breeze. In both artworks, above the tidal waves of the sea is the blue sky where the clouds are ambiguous and in a constant morphing into new shapes. The two art pieces can be good examples where the atmospheric perspective technique has been incorporated since the two artists subtlety alters colors, value and details so as to provide a real sense of being in the sunshine state of a tropical climate. In his working, Roberts uses tones of pale yellow color to unite the sandy beach and the sky evoking a humid and hazy atmosphere Egypt is well known for that. The figure of the composition it the smooth curving rocky terrain in the left of the Themistokles’ View of Laerdalsoren extending all the way to the background and surrounding the sea. In the center, lie the ocean, a boat, and some people riding horses at the beach. There is also a white road leading to another bay in the other side of the ocean. The road and the other structures at the other side are diminishing in sizes giving an impression of the increased distance between them and the viewer. These far away structures are seen beyond an increased

Ideal Body Image Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ideal Body Image - Article Example All people are different but generally speaking men and women are at odds about the perfect shape of a woman. Women are willing to go through various 'hardships' in order to lose weight and become skinny while men actually admit that they prefer curvier bodies. This is the dilemma that will be discussed in this article. [20] The society plays an integral part in shaping up a persons belief and sense of right and wrong. Unfortunately it is this very society that breeds insecurities and self-consciousness just because a person is a little different from the rest. The society has created a 'need' for women to get skinnier to remain socially acceptable. The ideal body today is, after all, several sizes smaller than what nature intended for most women. Marcia Hutchinson, a psychologist, says "We live in a culture where it's normal for women to feel we should be thinner, prettier, firmer, and younger, so it's normal for us to have body-image problems". [5] [6] [12] The portrayal of women in advertisements, dramas and movies are the real influence to the society's perceptions. A chubby woman seeing models like Jennifer Lopez or Kiera Knightly moving around gracefully in movies would feel put off when she compares herself to these models. The fact is since we are bombarded with so many images of thinness and perfection that women, regardless of their weight, are often unhappy with their bodies. They stand in front of their mirrors judging and comparing themselves, and they feel shamed because they feel fat. 'Their legs are too big, their breasts too small, their stomachs are too round'. They dislike the bodies they live in, and as a result, end up disliking the person who lives in that body. [4] [5] [6] [12] [17] [19] Cases of depression are widely known to be associated with a woman's feeling of being 'fat'. Discussing this problem with a family friend, she informed me that 'we just want to look good'. When I emphasized that she was smart looking, her face turned surly and she ended the conversation telling me that 'guys don't know anything!' This is just one case. There are plenty of women who fall into this category of wanting to 'just look good'. The fact is that women are more conscious about their weight than men are. There are way more fat weight-conscious women than fat weight-indifferent men. The study was done by Kristen Harrison, associate professor in Speech Communications, along with Laramie D. Taylor of the University of California at Davis, and Amy Lee Marske of Libertyville High School in Libertyville, exposed students on the campuses of two large Midwestern universities to slides of 'ideal body images', selected by a randomly chosen panel of students beforehand, for men and women separately. The conclusions derived from the study were that the ideal body for men was perceived to be big and muscular. To achieve such a body, men considered not eating anything not really a useful strategy. Harrison concluded that eating more makes the men feel a little bit better, and portray a more masculine image to other guys. [8] Further

Company Diversification Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Company Diversification - Essay Example   The business venture that the corporate managers decide on should be that can gain from the resources of the diversified company. The management can also invest in creating sustainable competitive strategies by developing chain relationships with other companies in the industry (Daft, et al, 2010). This will enable the company to enjoy from economies of chain relationships. Similarly, the company should also prioritize on the diversification chances available in the industry. One of the strategies that the organizations can take to diversify is through acquisition. This will help the company to enter the market quicker than other. It may decide to use internal startup or through a joint venture.Factors to consider for the diversification of the companyOne of the factors that the corporate managers should ask themselves is whether they understand the advantage competitive strength of cross-business strategy. This will help them to fathom how different strategic fits work in a comp any. Furthermore, it will help the company to do strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis of the business. The team manager should also ask themselves whether the organization is strong enough to take full part in the group venture. Similarly, the managers should also examine themselves whether they can afford to cope with the strategies that will thereafter be put in place. The management team also needs to prioritize diversification opportunities that are available in the industry (Daft, et al, 2010).

Business law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Business law - Assignment Example Since Joe’s work includes a lot of heavy machinery and labour, one of the main regulatory and legal issues within the legal framework to be adhered to should be employee security and safety. He should also be able to provide adequate amount of medical facilities to his workers in case anything goes wrong since he is aware that he is working with heavy machinery that is likely to cause damages due to negligence. Thus, Joe should modify his business in such a manner that he does not get held or prosecuted for wrongfully being negligent about these crucial parts of his business. Since Joe’s work is mainly based on contract laborers, Joe should lay down a set of terms and conditions pertaining to the entirety of the business so that he comes off as taking at least some amount of charge for anything that happens or goes wrong. This can be done with ease since he already has a high number of clients and a building repute. (Legal Issues With Contract Labour) All these measures will not only help Joe to safeguard his employees and maintain his repute but might also help to check the reasons for the high rate of employee turnover that exists within his firm. When it comes to the choice of entity, it means what type the business will actually take place as, from a legal aspect of course. Here the main thing to be discussed is what kind of a firm Joe will form for his own. According to all the information provided, Joe already has a company because he has a number of workers working for him, however he owns it solely. If he wishes, he may convert this into a partnership form of firm because he can then have someone else sharing the profits, since the revenue turnover is extremely high, that would not really be a problem. Also, the main thing to look into is the fact that in a partnership, the liability is extended out to all the partners and

Practicum Learning Agreement Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Practicum Learning Agreement - Assignment Example Help student to under stand their professions this by motivating the students to solve most tasks and get new ideas of their professional activities through research, Help to solve emerging negative issues of different categories for example communities, groups and individuals. This is through the discussions exhibits where one gets to know the problems the society is facing; it helps create good relationships of different people at different levels. By understanding their way of reasoning, levels of work, their exposure to the new technology and their educational level, Enable one in exhibition. This will help curb the social problem through one on one insertion due to demonstration in discussion thus improving the society and find solutions to the problems faced due to more research and achieve the objectives. The knowledge that the student will get will enable the student to fit well in the marketing industry and to make him become successful in everything that he/she

Professional Development in the Early Reading First Essay

Professional Development in the Early Reading First - Essay Example In particular, the teachers in the treatment group gave a specific response to implementing, modifying and extending the PD program. Rochelle and McGee (2011, p. 167) revealed that the treatment group achieved a mean score of 93.8 compared to the control group mean score of 82.3. Further, 67% of students belonging to the treatment group met the Government Performance Reporting Act guidelines of achieving a language rating of at least 85 compared to only 40% for the control group (Dail and McGee, 2011, p. 167). Summarizing the results of their experience as project directors, Dial and McGee (2011, p. 168) concluded that a PD approach in reading is associated with success. Carlisle et al. (2011) compared three models of professional development (PD) in reading among first grades and concluded that supporting teacher through seminars, evaluation, and coaching work best in leading teachers towards effective instructions among first graders. In the process of sharing their results, the au thors pointed out that professional development in reading is the best means of improving teachers’ competence in content areas that result into an improvement of instructions (Carlisle et al., 2011, p. 13). According to the authors, effective professional development in reading is characterized by deep subject matter knowledge as well as knowledge on how students learn content, commitment, course coherence and integration, participation and active learning, and institutional and professional support (Carlisle et al., 2011, p. 214). The authors cited several cases that indicate that reading instructions are successful if a professional development approach is used. For instance, according to the authors, the PD initiative among 17 poverty and low-achieving schools in Washington and Houston as carried by B. Foorman and L. Moats has been considered by the authors as very successful. One important argument forwarded by Carlisle et al. (2011, p. 230) is that PD is successful beca use teachers respond well to the approach. In a commissioned study in 2005-06, one of the research questions which the U.S. Department of Education was to find out the effects of professional development on student reading achievement (NCEERA or National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, 2009, p. 1). The study employed an experimental design in testing the effectiveness of professional development interventions in over 90 schools in six districts involving 270 teachers and 5,500 students (p. 1). The schools were randomly and equally assigned to an institute group, institute plus coaching group, and a control which received the usual professional development implemented in the district (NCEERA, 2009, p. 1). Some of the key findings of the commissioned research are as follows. First, teachers who were randomly assigned to avail professional development form institutes scored significantly higher on teachers’ knowledge compared with those in the control gr oup.  

Managing for Results Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Managing for Results - Essay Example The officer in command was Captain William Bligh and Fletcher Christian was second in command. Some countrymen are pressed into serving the English navy for this voyage of about 2 years. After having faced various hardships put forth by the sea and the Captain in command, alike, they reached Tahiti and obtained the breadfruit plants during their six month stay on the island. However, shortly after leaving Tahiti, Christian leads a mutiny against Captain Bligh in revolt of his atrocities on the seamen. They manage to capture and cast Bligh and his loyalists in a life boat with some supplies while Christian and his loyalists return to Tahiti in the HMS Bounty. Bligh and his people make the most remarkable conduct of navigation in the history of the sea - a 3500 mile open sea voyage aboard a life boat. Bligh reaches Timor Island. He returns to Tahiti aboard another ship in search of the mutineers, lead by Fletcher Christian. Christian and a few men escape in the Bounty while several oth ers remain on the island. They are taken to England by Bligh and are tried for mutiny. Most men are executed for their crime except Roger Byam. Christen and his followers reach Pitcairn Island, where they decide to spend the rest of their lives, and burn down the Bounty so as to not be found by English searchers. ‘A story of a man who robbed his seamen, cursed them, flogged them not to punish, but to break their spirit. A story of greed and tyranny.....and of anger against it, of what it cost’ – Roger Byam during the trial (Mutiny on the Bounty, 1935) Captain William Blighs managerial abilities on the Bounty is an excellent example of how one man changed from control leadership to team unity with a change in the situation, over 2 centuries years ago. Bligh tries to enforce harsh ‘discipline’ by various means - flogging a dead seaman for striking his captain, shortening rations as per the Captains prerogative, public chastisement of Christian, Bligh accusing

Comment critically on comparative advantage as a basis for international trade Essay Example for Free

Comment critically on comparative advantage as a basis for international trade Essay Comparative advantage was an idea proposed by David Ricardo in 1817, and is an idea which can be used on a variety of scales, but is most often used when analysing international trade. Ricardo used the idea of wool produced in England at a lower opportunity cost than wool is produced in Portugal relative to wine, while in Portugal wine is produced at a lower opportunity cost than wine is produced in Britain relative to the wool. This means that in Portugal it is less costly to produce wine in terms of what is the next best use of the resources involved. The reasons that this occurs could be for any number of reasons: weather, technology, productivity of workers in that industry and so on. This idea is one that all countries can benefit from, as even a tiny country will have a comparative advantage in a good relative to another good, even when trading with a world superpower. Comparative advantage is often used to look at just two countries and two goods, which is not necessarily a pitfall as the model can be applied to multiple countries and multiple goods, it is just for simplicity. Shown below is a very simple idea of the benefits produced by comparative advantage: As with any model in economics, comparative advantage is not ideal. It is a proposed model based upon a fundamental idea which has very often proved itself to be true, but it still relies on many ideals and factors that do not and cannot realistically exist. These underlying assumptions mean it is difficult to base international trade upon the comparative advantage theory. However, the comparative advantage theory is questionably a solid basis to trade, even if it cannot explain international demand and supply in its entirety. The biggest problem when it comes to how affective comparative advantage is in dictating trade is that all factors of production are assumed to be perfectly mobile, something which it is fair to say is never the case. The idea is that any factors of production, be it labour, capital, land or entrepreneurship, that these, if made redundant from one industry it is thought that these resources could immediately be transferred to another industry that has a comparative advantage over the other country. This is clearly not going to be case, unless the industries are very similar, something which contradicts another theory of comparative advantage, which states all goods are homogenous. It is therefore almost an impossibility for this to occur, for the unemployment created by a failed industry to be suddenly removed by another. Structural unemployment of people without the necessary skills to work, is inevitable. Even in the EU, where the S.E.A single market was set up in 1986, it is still difficult just to go and work in another EU country for geographic, structural and lingual reasons. The government would have to spend a huge amount on supply side policies such as very efficient schemes of education or perhaps low taxation (Thatcherite) to be able to transfer skills that quickly, and shift the long run aggregate supply curve to the right, thus reducing unemployment: Because the government realises just how unlikely and difficult it is to transfer resources, it actively discourages the failure of an industry, as shown by the EUs enormous subsidies of the farmers in this country, most notably the Common Agricultural Policy. It is therefore acting against the theory of comparative advantage, as this would dictate that the farmers move into the service sector, where Britain is very productive. This shows how politics has a great affect on trade once the industry has been established, though comparative advantage may well have dictated what industries were originally started and how they grew, even if politics has a greater effect today. The fact that politics makes a big difference in the effect of comparative advantage demonstrates another shortcoming of the theory. It assumes that trade around the world is completely free, something which is increasingly true, although the creation of the EU has meant that trade within the EU is almost completely free, while from in the EU to the rest of the world, protectionist policies are in place. There also continue to be some semi-autarkic countries such as North Korea. If cricket bats are made in both England and Pakistan, if Pakistan has the comparative advantage in making the good, in terms of Panama hats for example, consumers in the UK may well still buy cricket bats from British producers, for several reasons, most importantly that policies such as tariffs or quotas may well be in place on goods entering the EU, in which case the goods are no longer price competitive. This is shown below: However, the large sales of cricket bats in the UK may well also be for other reasons. Cricket bats are not a homogenous product, with different bats suiting different players, and other non-price competitive reasons such as a higher quality of bat made domestically or that there is better after-sale support. This is something that the theory of comparative advantage does not take into account. It may also be very expensive to transport the bats to the UK from Pakistan, making it no longer economically efficient to trade here. This is something else that is not taken into account by the model. All these things aside, the reasons why countries trade is for the benefits that arise from the trading, such as specialisation increasing output, economies of scale, innovation through competition and the welfare gains in increasing the consumers choice. It is at no stage a random process as to what goods are traded, and there are good reasons for why bananas arent grown in England and sheep arent reared in the West Indies. The productivity of a country in producing a good dictates what it will trade, and a country that is very inefficient in producing a good will move onto something to which it is more suited. There are of course cases where this is overridden by the factors mentioned, but ultimately comparative advantage theory does form a basis as the title suggests, to almost all international trade. For the trade to occur, the terms of trade are laid out, which is simplified to compromising between the opportunity cost ratios of the two countries. Once again, this is not exactly how it works, as politics and economics merge to create something slightly different, but it is highly likely to be something close to what comparative advantage suggests it should be. It is inevitable that the model does not fit the real world, but there is not a single economic theory that can be applied directly to an economy with no assumptions being made.

Developing The Anti Tobacco Smoking Campaigns English Language Essay

Developing The Anti Tobacco Smoking Campaigns English Language Essay Indian women are among the worst in the world when it comes to smoking. According to the latest Tobacco Atlas, the country ranks third in the top 20 female smoking populations across the globe.   Only the US with 2.3 crore female smokers and China with 1.3 crore women smokers are worse off than India. Tobacco usage in India claims more than 800000 lives annually. Globally the number of smokers is expected to rise to 1.7 billion by 2020. Ninety percent of the smokers in the country start smoking before they are 24 years old. Half the male tuberculosis deaths in India are caused by smoking. If smoking is unchecked, by 2020, millions of people in India will become regular smokers. Most of them experience their first puff before attaining the age 18. What is most disturbing is the steady rise in the numbers of teenagers, some of them as young as 14 or 15 years. Out of the 1000 teenagers who smoke, at least 500 have been found to die of tobacco-related diseases. In USA, the drop in smoking has been attributed to a number of reasons a growing awareness about the health-damaging effects of smoking, rising cigarette prices, rising cigarette taxes, aggressive anti-smoking campaigns and a decline in the social acceptability of smoking. Disastrous Effects of Smoking Smoking predisposes to oral, lung, and other cancers. Smokers are more likely to suffer from high blood pressure and to experience a heart-attack or stroke. Smokers are also at increased risk of disturbances ranging from dental caries to osteoporosis. Women smokers are more likely to have abortions. Their children are more likely to have behavioral disorders. Non-smokers, who regularly inhale cigarette smoke, also suffer higher medical risk. A study of half a million Americans who were followed-up for an average of nine years, showed that the risk of death was doubled in smokers. *As many as 2200 Indians stop smoking every day by dying. Tobacco is the second major cause of death in the world. Forty percent of the cancer detected in India, is because of tobacco use. With every cigarette, you ingest a staggering 4700 chemicals, 42 carcinogens or cancer-causing substance. One cigarette and one beedi reduce seven minutes of your life. Approximately Rs.27000 crores in terms of healthcare costs and lost productively. One packet of Pan Parrag or Hans reduces four minutes of your life. It causes sexual impotency in men, miscarriage and infertility in women, wrinkled skin, stained teeth, bad odour, mouth ulceration and difficulty in swallowing. Every organ in the body is affected from head to toe, especially the brain, lungs and heart attacks, chronic cough and lung disease, worsened condition of diabetes, blood pressure and lower stamina. Babies born to mothers who smoke can be sicker, die suddenly, or have more infections of the middle ear, coughing and wheezing. Tobacco-related causes lead, every year in India, to 20000 amputations besides frightening diseases like lung/oral cancer, stroke and heart problems and over eight lakh deaths compared to 60000 from road accidents. Cause problems to family, friends and co-workers from the smoke from the cigarette exposing them to the same dangers. This is called second hand smoking. Therefore, it is quite evident that smoking is a serious problem India is facing today esp. the youth of India. Target Segment As mentioned earlier, females generally start smoking in their late teens. So, my campaign would be targeting the girls who are in the age group of 16-24 years. Attitude towards Smoking Young women who smoke experience very few noticeable side effects (well nothing serious enough to motivate quitting en masse), not only do they lack the motivation to quit; they are also extraordinarily adept at creating loopholes to escape antismoking messages directed at them. An analysis of various research showed that the three main loopholes were: Smoking is just one of the many risks in life Young smokers make a distinction between immediate, personal reasons for giving up and more remote, official reasons such as long term health risks (e.g. lung cancer) which seem less relevant. The risks of smoking are too far in the future to worry about now Young smokers have no meaningful sense of their own mortality and live very much in the here and now. Antismoking messages are redundant everybody knows smoking is   bad for you To be effective, the antismoking message must feel like new news. Planning the Anti-Smoking Campaigns The planner had to infiltrate the world of the young female smoker to find a new angle, but how?   We needed to work from the inside out, our starting point being our target, from its own point of view.   We would find our targets weak spot and then find a weapon to match a relevant short term negative effect of smoking that would hit them where it would have the most effect.   Teenwatching For several months, the planner would watch the targets programmes and movies, read their magazines, frequented their hang out spots and shopped where they shopped.   Part of this planners method research included teenwatching (i.e. observing and interacting with our target in its own environment, as one of them) in various McDonalds on Saturday afternoons. Interviews with editors of leading young womens magazines An important and intimate relationship exists between young womens magazines and their readers.   These magazines act almost as best friend and offer discussion and advice on everything from what to wear and how to pull to body image and emotional problems.   For the lowdown on how to get even closer to our target, the planner would grill the editors of magazines with large (female) youth profiles. Strategy positioning research We need to find a credible, relevant and persuasive message that communicated a short term negative effect of smoking. The key insight of our targets weak spot As a result of the above, three key points became clear:   There is no scope for even a hint of a prescriptive just say no antismoking message. This group, young women, will only respond to messages that offer (or seem to offer) them an informed choice.   This is part of their assertion of independence and their rejection of anything that comes from people who patronise them and couldnt possibly understand what it means to be them. Appearance (and from this, positive self-esteem, boys, sex and peer   group acceptance) is the key preoccupation Young women are extremely concerned about their appearance (real and perceived).   When it comes to their appearance (skincare, make up, clothes, hair etc ) this group seem to be trains potters of the first order.   They are information hungry and, when reading their magazines, they are willing to plough through acres of pictures, diagrams and juicy detail to discover whats new and true in the world of skincare, hair care and overall image creation.   Credible information learned here passes into the grapevine and can very quickly become received wisdom within the peer group. Young womens positive associations with smoking (aside from peer group acceptance) are mainly to do with appearance: When you smoke you look sophisticated, quietly confident, a bit sexy, alluring and more like an adult The spectre of post quitting weight gain was, for many young women, seen as more relevant and immediate than cancer. Cancer may happen in the future, you cant see it but the weight you can see it now and you have to live with it We would have to talk to these girls about something that was genuinely important to them now (not just what we think should be important to them)their looks.   An approach that exploits our targets insecurities about their appearance, using the scientific language of cosmetics, could work Young female smokers believe that the short term negative effects on appearance caused by smoking is just not credible because, unsurprisingly, they could not see any adverse effects taking place now. I propose a hypothesis that a credible but scary fact (smoking makes your skin thinner true but probably unusable because everyone in this rather small medical study was over 50 years old) would capture our targets imagination and create a cause for concern where there previously was none (cf. messages from cosmetics manufacturers re: large pores, toxins in the skin, blackheads and sun cream).   Sure enough, many of the girls would take the skin thinness story.   I believe girls would internalise the story and gave it their own meanings that were relevant to them now and that tapped into their own individual anxieties about the appearance of their skin. There was a great deal of familiarity with a wide range of scientific skincare terms (e.g. antioxidants, aminoacids, toxins etc) which was not particularly surprising given this groups obsession and information hunger with regards to appearance, in general, and skincare specifically.   This is the language of cosmetics that cosmetics manufacturers use to sell these girls more and more skin, hair and body products.   Each new product requires its own story filled with scientific language to lend it credibility.   The Story Every cigarette contains 4000 toxins, many of which the blood stream carries straight into the structure of the skin.   The toxins in cigarette smoke cause the blood vessels in the top layers of the skin to constrict thus reducing the blood supply there.  Ã‚   It is the reduced blood supply which causes a reduction in the availability of oxygen (which is necessary for all living cells) and the removal of waste products, dead skin fragments, etc which provides the necessary environment for skin regeneration. This would be scary stuff to the average young woman who spends much of her time and money on a skincare regime worthy of Cleopatra herself (face packs, cleansing, exfoliating, toning and moisturising). The creative brief My proposition for the campaign is: Every cigarette you smoke is having a detrimental effect on your looks now. Smoking makes younger you look older The picture above clearly captures the side effects of smoking on the beauty of a girl. Creative Development research Three key points relevant to the campaign are: In order to attract the attention of our rather discriminating target, the visuals used had to be of intrinsic interest to them.   It is not enough to use long scientific copy to imitate the language of cosmetics.   In order to be relevant the copy should be succinct and, to create the same excitement that good cosmetics ads do, it must adopt the aspirational Clinique approach of top skincare scientists at the cutting edge rather than that of an ordinary G.P., a grey, health expert. A tone that is too jokey, cleverclever, discursive or ironic would undermine the credibility of the message. Refining the creative work We stuck with the idea and the creative team used the learnings from research to present our story in a way that was a shorthand, communicating effectively in a language (the language of cosmetics) that our target understood immediately and was already highly responsive to:   Four single page print ads in the style of a high quality cosmetics ad campaign but with cigarettes and cigarette ash sullying typical skincare / cosmetic products (facepack, skin cream, translucent powder and a make up brush).1 The final media strategy We worked extremely closely with our media team and when we saw the finished ads glossy, beautiful, instant fix we decided that not only were we going to use magazines, for the reasons outlined above, but we were also going to use posters in the London Underground because: Although the Underground is not a beauty environment per se, many cosmetics brands advertise there and so there was a natural fit with our faux cosmetics campaign. You cant smoke on the tube and so cigarettes are often top of mind for many smokers when they travel on the Underground. A grim reality strategy of getting to our target when they are feeling lousy e.g. early in the morning. Have we hit the mark? Qualitative research commissioned by the HEA showed that by using the language of cosmetics, and also the glamour and simple gloss of the best cosmetics advertisements, the message was found to be believable and extremely relevant.   These ads were found to be an appropriate counter to the sophisticated image the tobacco industry and the movie / fashion world currently give cigarettes. Quantitative ad tracking showed a 20% increase in the number of 16 24 year olds who claim to have seen advertising with an antismoking message (excluding nicotine replacement treatments).   84% of the smokers that had seen the ads felt that they were aimed specifically at them and almost two thirds said that the ads had encouraged them to think about giving up.   With these ads, we have achieved our goal of inspiring, in our target, the beginnings of meaningful motivation to quit through engendering a sense of identification, instilling a sense of urgency and blocking off escape routes. Journalists too have followed our lead and magazines and newspapers now run stories about smoking affecting young girls looks (4000 toxins etc) as if it were received wisdom.2 The planner used her wits (and a bit of method in her madness) to find a way (literally) under the otherwise impenetrable skins of young women who smoke. Conclusion Planning contributed to highly successful creative work by: Redefining the role for advertising Using method planning, as a complement to conventional research, to find a critical new consumer insight which changed the way we positioned our antismoking message Providing crucial ammunition for creatives by discovering certain key facts to create a new, relevant story about the effects of smoking Using research to refine the creative work and to encourage intelligent media implementation

The Importance of Latin in the Curriculum Essay -- Latin Language Educ

The Importance of Latin in the Curriculum My memories of Latin in high school are less than fond. I remember slouching in my chair, staring blankly at my desk as I tried to remember the form of the word agricola (farmer) in the ablative plural. Much of the class consisted of mundane activities like this. We translated endless Bible passages from Latin, translated what seemed like the entire body of Greek mythological literature, and read hundreds of lines from The Aneid, The Odyssey, and The Iliad. I signed up for Latin because I was considering going into medicine, and I had heard that doctors need to know Latin. As high school progressed, though, a medical career seemed less and less likely so it appeared I had no real use for Latin, except that I knew the meaning of phrases like carpe diem and semper ubi sub ubi (always wear underwear). When someone would ask me why I took Latin, I would either mumble something about how Latin is the foundation on which all modern languages are based, or I would laugh and agree w ith them that it was a waste of my time, and that it’s a dead language. And it is a dead language, at least in spoken form. Regardless of what Dan Quayle thinks, Latin is not the official language of Latin America. Latin has dropped from being the language spoken by almost the entire known Western world to an obscure language known mainly in scholarly circles. After the fall of the Roman Empire to Germanic invaders in 476 AD, Latin began a shift from being the common tongue to a language used mainly by upper-class and learned people (Hammond 243). Because the Church used Latin extensively, it became, along with ancient Greek, â€Å"the sheath in which the sword of the Spirit is lodged,† as Martin Luth... ...s managed to escape from the wrath of the approaching Greek army. Works Cited â€Å"Amo, Amas, Latin – How Schools Are Using the Ancient Tongue to Teach English.† Time 11 December, 2000: 61. Culham, Phyllis, and Edmunds, Lowell, ed. Classics: A Discipline and Profession In Crisis. Lanham: University Press of America, 1989. Davis, Sally. Latin in American Schools: Teaching the Ancient World. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991. Hammond, Mason. Latin: A Historical and Linguistic Handbook. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1976. Kopff, E. Christian. The Devil Knows Latin: Why America Needs the Classical Tradition. Wilmington: ISI Books, 1999. Smith, Sharwood. On Teaching Classics. London, Henley and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977. Waquet, Francoise. Latin Or The Empire Of A Sign. Trans. John Howe. New York: Verso, 2001

Love and Loneliness in Thornton Wilders The Bridge of San Luis Rey Ess

Love and Loneliness in Thornton Wilder's The Bridge of San Luis Rey "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." -Theodore Roosevelt, 1901    In Thornton Wilder's Pulitzer Prize winning novel, The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1939), a message is woven throughout the pages and portrayed in each character. The novel is about the finest bridge in all of Peru and on Friday, July the twentieth, 1714, the bridge broke, taking five travelers into the gulf below. Brother Juniper, a monk who witnessed the catastrophe burned the question, "Why did this happen to those five?" He also poses the proposition, "Either we live by accident and die by accident, or we live by plan and die by plan" (pg. 119). The novel tediously describes each of the five killed in the accident. All five of them were well-respected people in the public eye who, at one point in their lives, deeply loved someone, but unintentionally loses them. As the novel draws closer to the end, the message becomes clearer to the reader. Thornton Wilder uses the bridge in his novel to symbolize the "bridge" between love and loneliness. The "bridge" of love that "connects one to a nother gives dignity and purpose to even the lowliest of lives" (pg. 119). One of the victims of the accident was the Marquesa de Montemayor, Doà ±a Marà ­a. She had an unhappy childhood, "she was ugly; she stuttered; her mother persecuted her with sarcasms" (pg. 11). She lived alone and when she was finally forced into marriage, she still lived alone. When she was bore with a daughter, she was determined to give "her idolatrous love" (pg. 12). However, little Clara took after her father and was cold and intellectual. Clara frightened her mother, "but Doà ±a Marà ­a could not prevent herself from... ...ld sit down and rest, but it turned out not to be necessary" (pg. 102). The breaking of the bridge in Thornton Wilder's novel, The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1939) symbolizes a realistic message of how there is a "land of the living and a land of the dead and the bridge is love, the only survival, the only meaning" (pg. 117). The characters in the novel display the true affection at one point in their life and suddenly in an instant, the bridge is beyond repair. Wilder does an amazing job of creating a situation approached in every day life about love, losing and loneliness. The message in The Bridge of San Luis Rey (1939) is one that all of the world can relate to, it's a strong "bridge" at one point and with one wrong move, it's broken and lost forever.    Works Cited    Wilder, Thornton. The Bridge of San Luis Rey. New York: Washington Square Press, Inc. 1955.

Modern Lifestyle

Phenolic yellowing issues We have been facing yellowing on the fabrics kept at stores,all the test results were passing like PH,Phenolic yellowing,Formaldehyde,Light and BGF but we couldn;t come to an solution . Hence we have finally kept the fabric exposed in sunlight for a day and found that it has totally became yellow in the exposed area. So please advise whether the fabric stored can be wrapped with a opaque cover and also in the dark room to avoid the issue. 1 month ago * Close viewer * Like * Comment * Follow * Flag * Flag as Promotion * Flag as Job * Flag as Inappropriate * More Reply Privately Suresh Kumar, Marco Premoli like this You, Suresh Kumar, Marco Premoli like this 21 comments †¢ Jump to most recent comments SureshUnfollow Follow Suresh Suresh Kumar †¢ Your fabric is definately containing some chemicals and its Ph is not neutra. ; The test done by you is not correct. You may send your fabric sample to our lab for correct test and evaluation. We can definate ly suggest a solution. Dyetech Consultants ( Testing Lab Division} 98 Ind Area A Ludhiana. PH 08528806039, India 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion ShaileshUnfollow Follow Shailesh Shailesh Shah †¢ what kind of fabric, Is it 100% cotton or other blend? 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 DanUnfollow Follow Dan Dan Koshak '50 †¢ Check your softeners used 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 JayakumarUnfollow Follow Jayakumar Jayakumar Gopalakrishnan †¢ The possibilitiess are 2. 1. The store illuminant is damaging the OBA , Fluorescent illuminants contain UV and can be quite damaging, especially the new CFL lamps. 2.The fabric was not neutralized properly, the ISO pH test does not show up bad neutrali zation as well as the AATCC tests does. We have done several correlations and have sufficient data to prove this. Most mills will check the last bath water and fabric surface for pH , they dont use the correct method to calculate the acid/buffer required to neutralize the fabric ( PKa PKb) , and hence may have unloaded at 6 or 6. 5, but the Alkali in the core would first come out when squeezed in the Padder and will form salts with the cationic softener, which can be checked by scoring the fabric and checking for white lines.Further on storage this alkali damages the OBA and causes yellowing. If the yellow is lemon then it is phenolic if it is a redder yellow or what is called Golden than it is alkaline. One must also factor for the volatility of Acetic aci if that was used for neutralizing. 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 1 AbhishekUnfollow Follow Abhishek Abhishek Jadhav †¢ 1) Dear G anesh I will just ask you to check core pH of your fabric after Application of OBA. for Core pH just boiled a piece of fabric at 98 C for 30 min in distilled water.Allow the solution to cool. Check the pH with the calibrated pH meter. 2) Now if you find your core pH to be highly acidic , I will suggest you to used a Sera Con M-TC from DyStar during your neutralization stage , which is a buffer. Thus even if the pH is not neutralized completely M-TC will not allow the alkaline pH of fabric to change beyond 6-6. 5. 3) Even after then if you faced phenolic yellowing problem, there is anti yellowing agent namely sera protect N-APY from Dystar. Just pad the fabric and your yellowing problem would be solved.In case of any further support kindly contact me † jadhav. [email  protected] com† 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 JayakumarUnfollow Follow Jayakumar Jayakumar Gopalakrishnan à ¢â‚¬ ¢ I disagree with the boil at 98 Deg for 30 mins statement, unless you are pressure cooking it where the boiling point of water will be lower . At 1 Atm 100 Deg is the boiling point for water . 1. mins is too long and will case several changes that will give erroneous results. 10 mins is sufficient. Please see AATCC TM 81 for correct procedure.My silence on the use of some special chemicals mentioned does not amount to my accepting these I have no knowledge on the use of these chemicals to make a comment. 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 SureshUnfollow Follow Suresh Suresh Kumar †¢ Dear Jaaya Kumar I agree with you. In normal conditions, 90 Degree c and 10 Mts is o. k. But if we want 60 degree colour fastness to washing and zero shrinkage, in addition to Ph Neutral,then 30 Mts recommended by me. Regards. 1 month ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Fl ag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 KATHIRVELMURUGANUnfollow Follow KATHIRVELMURUGAN KATHIRVELMURUGAN RAMAKRISHNAN †¢ Drop me your requirements. We have solutions for it and we have done it at numerous customer locations. Mail me at [email  protected] com 19 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 sUnfollow Follow s s Madiwale †¢ Jaya kumar is absolutely right 18 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 AminUnfollow Follow AminAmin Khoja †¢ The theory of phenolic yellowing is as mentioned below :- Oxides of nitrogen are generated in warehouses/households from direct heating systems or from automobile emissions in the urban environment. Neither the oxides of nitrogen nor the phenolic compounds by themselves cause yellowing, but when united, form the yellowing products. The Butylated Hydr oxyl Toluene OR the phenolic derivatives of lignin from the packing materials migrate to the surface and get transferred to the textile material, which in turn, when exposed to the oxides of nitrogen in the ambient atmosphere, cause yellowing.Practically, Phenolic yellowing can be prevented by the following methods: [1] Avoidance of phenolic antioxidants and stabilizers in the packaging materials or in the synthetic polymer fibres used in the blends [2] keep the finished textiles at a slightly acidic pH (neutralization with specialty acids). Selection of Core-neutralising agent is important as, it should not contain mineral acid content. [3] Better to Avoid exposure to oxides of nitrogen pollution by different practices of storages condition 17 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion AminUnfollow Follow Amin Amin Khoja †¢ Dear Mr. Jayakumar, This is in ref. to your comment related to boiling poin t of water i. e. when you pressure cook it than boiling point of water is lower. When we pressure cook the water the boiling point of water will go up or down? as per my information read from book of textile printing by L. W. C. Miles, 5 psi pressure on water will make boiling point of water around 108*C, 10 psi pressure on water will make boiling point of water around 115*C and so on. i. e. saturated steam will be generated at concerned pressure due to hick of boiling point. ecause, definition of saturated steam says that the steam which is generated at boiling point is to be known as saturated steam. Kindly correct me if, i am wrong. 17 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 ARUN KUMARUnfollow Follow ARUN KUMAR ARUN KUMAR WALIA †¢ Kindly do let me know the following things so that I can let you know the cuases of yellowing :- 1. The fabric of which you are talking is made from which yarn. 2. Where in the process you are using Phenol. 3. Is yellowing occuring during processing or after complete processing. . If after complete processing then after much period. 5. What are the atmospheric conditions viz. Temp. , RH etc. under which yellowing is occuring. You just let me know these then I hope we will be in a position to resolve the issue , Arun Kumar walia 17 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 ZahidUnfollow Follow Zahid Zahid Akhter †¢ Dear I have a OBA which cover all such problem if any body need please call 00923004200236 Zahid 16 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate †¢ Flag as promotion 0 DaveUnfollow Follow Dave Dave Ducker †¢ Sorry for joining this discussion late, it is of interest that I see so many â€Å"wonder† products availble to prevent this from happening, but unless messages have been flyi ng back and forth directly there is no information with regards to what fabric this is 100% cotton? what colour and or colours are affected? what is the fabric dyed with? reactives, vats, directs? others? when testing was the fabric exposed to the sunlight whilst still in the packaging or removed from the packaging? omplete chemical exposure of the fabric, process and finishing conditions and recipes? core pH's? if using acetic acid think about using citric, chemical make up of the packaging? there are many different possibilities where it is coming from. If a logical step by step approach is adopted you will find the answer. If you require more info feel free to contact me direct. Regards, 16 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 1 ShaileshUnfollow Follow Shailesh Shailesh Shah †¢ Dave is exactly right without knowing chemical system, Machine, procedures , packing etc.There was discussion abou t phenolic test and I mention that Need to evaluate each and every step and then find solution this is very common problem and solve easily. I have done lots of fabric whit fabric for 100% polyester to 100% cotton and also blend Nylon/cotton etc for several customer like Nike,Adidas,Tommy, columbia sports etc. 16 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 SueUnfollow Follow Sue Sue Bolton †¢ is the fabic treated with OBA? it is known that the OBA degrades to yellow on exposure to light perhaps at ISO 105 B02 standard 1, then on further exposure this yellowing fades. ry assessing for light and examin at 30 min intervals 15 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 PalanisamyUnfollow Follow Palanisamy Palanisamy Krishnan †¢ Dear Ganesh pls send us for testing†¦. 14 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * â₠¬ ¢ Reply privately * †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 0 PoongodirajanUnfollow Follow Poongodirajan Poongodirajan Ramasamy †¢ dear ganesh, use the BHT(Butyl Hydroxyl Toulene) free polybags to store the products to avoid such issues 11 days ago †¢ Unlike †¢ Like * †¢ Reply privately †¢ Flag as inappropriate * †¢ Flag as promotion 1 ShahidUnfollow Follow Shahid Shahid Iqbal †¢ In addition to the comments regarding bags and pH, please check the softener as well. Use only silicon softeners. Follow the following steps. 1. Follow the full bleaching process (peroxide bleaching with OBA). Maintain the whiteness degree 20 more then your requirement. 2. Use silicon softener only in the finishing process†¦ Silicon softeners will lower down your whiteness but since you already have a higher degree of whiteness this would be no problem at all.

Child Development Article Reaction Paper Essay

The article How Your Child Learns by Jeannie Ralston, in Parenting magazine’s September 2006 issue, addresses the different learning and motivation styles of children. According to Jeannie Ralston, there are three learning styles: by listening, looking, or doing. Most children will either rely heavily on one of the learning modes, or use a combination of the three. Children that learn by listening typically are not motivated by pictures, but by sounds and songs. Listening children learn through conversation and jingles. Auditory learners need quiet for concentrated tasks and do well when asked to repeat back ideas to reinforce what has been learned. Visual learners often are described as having photographic memories. Children that learn visually learn well from pictures, videos, maps, models, and charts. Visually oriented children often are so captured by pictures on a page; they have problems concentrating on any one thing. Kinesthetic or doing children learn by using their bodies. This can mean a child needs to move around while thinking or use his fingertips to absorb meaning. Kinesthetic children tend to not be able to sit still for long periods and prefer to act out stories rather than hear or see them on a page. Active learners are easy to spot because they always want to be shown how to do things. Jeannie Ralston posits that there are also three styles that motivate kids to learn: the desire to please you; perfectionism; and competitiveness. Earning praise is the strongest motivator for children with a desire to please their caregivers. The key is to teach the child that pleasing himself is just as important. Some children have a driven desire to master everything and be perfect. These children need to be taught that mistakes are inevitable and that productivity need not suffer in light of mistakes. Competitive children are driven by the ‘I’ll show you’ streak. These children need to be taught that there are different ways of learning and not everyone will do things the same way. Both learning and motivational styles need to be combined for an effective early childhood learning experience. Combining motivational and learning styles of children allows parents to effectively support their children. I agree with the basic premise of Jeannie Ralston’s article and feel that most parents do not spend enough time or have the knowledge to figure how children learn and are motivated. Within one family, several children can have completely different learning styles. Children and parents alike are frustrated when presented with the wrong method of learning or motivation. I posit that all children have a combination of the three learning styles, maybe favoring one over the others. In order for a life long passion for learning to be cultivated in a small child, the child needs to be continually positively motivated. Knowing a child’s learning style will allow the parent to formulate learning opportunities that will continually excite the child. If the wrong learning style is presented to the child, the child will quickly loose interest and seek motivation else where outside of the learning arena. With all the current early childhood development research, parents need to understand that learning starts at much younger ages than five when a child starts school. Parents need an awareness of learning styles so that early childhood learning can be maximized. Parents also need to consider that each child will differ and what works for one child, may not work for the next. Parents also need to have flexibility and insight into their children to know when something is not working for the child. Knowing motivational styles will allow parents to ease difficult situations into win-win situations for both the parent and child. In all, Jeannie Ralston gives a good over view of learning and motivational styles. Understanding how one’s child learns and what motivates them will make parenting and learning an enjoyable and bonding experience. Capitalizing on this research is essential for a life time of learning and bringing out the best in one’s child.

Commercially Available Testing Tools

Once an application has been developed, the developers must demonstrate that it performs the tasks for which it was designed accurately, reliably and with adequate performance. For this to be fulfilled extensive testing must be carried out and tools have been built to assist with this process. Developers have built different types of tool for addressing different aspects of the same general problem. The importance of proper testing to detect as many errors as feasibly possible has been driven by the increase of malicious or criminal intent on the part of developers that produce applications with functions that facilitate fraud or other criminal activity (an especial risk to the financial industry). This problem has been addressed by European Community Legislation, increasing the onus on software developers to show that they took all reasonable steps to ensure an application was free of defects and suitable for the purpose for which it was developed. Failure to do so could leave the developer liable to be sued by anyone have has incurred a loss in any business as a result of software collapse. The main types of tool that have resulted as a partial result of this are described below. There are a large number of testing tools that are available, but they all work in very different ways. The main types of testing categories are described below. Tools that analyse source code without executing test cases, but in deriving test cases for the software to be tested. There are three different types used in industry that are described below: Code based testing tools accept source code as input and perform a number of analyses that result in the generation of test cases. This type of automated tool can broken down in to four further categories. The first are Code analysers that evaluate test modules automatically for proper syntax; statements are then highlighted where the syntax is wrong, if construction is error prone or if an item is undefined. The second category is Structure checkers where modules are submitted as input and a graph generated, depicting the hierarchy of modules and tools check for structural flaws, for example, determining the location of loops and branches and how they are used within the system. The third type are Data analysers which review data structures, data declarations and module interfaces, and notes improper linkage between modules, conflicting data definitions and illegal data usage. The final type are Sequence checkers where sequences of events are checked and marked if coded in wrong sequence. Specialised testing languages enable a software engineer to write detailed test specifications that describe each test case and the logistics for its execution. An example of one of these languages is Prolog, that is specifically used for test case generation. Requirements based testing tools isolate specific user requirements and suggest test cases (or classes of tests) that will exercise the requirements. Tools that analyse source code during execution of test cases by interacting with a program as it is executing and checking the path coverage, test assertions about the value of specific variables and otherwise instrumenting the execution flow of the program. They can be either intrusive or non-intrusive. An intrusive tool changes the software to be tested by inserting extra instructions or ‘probes† that perform the activities mentioned above. A non-intrusive tool uses a separate hardware processor that runs in parallel with the processor containing the program that is being tested. Systems can be difficult to test because several parallel operations are being carried out concurrently, which is especially true for real-time systems. Therefore it is difficult to anticipate the conditions and generate representative test conditions. However, dynamic test tools can capture a state of events during the execution of a program and so are often called program monitors, because they watch and report the behaviour of the program. The functions of the monitor are to list the number of times a submodule is called or a line of code is executed. These statistics tell testers if the test cases have statement coverage. Another function is to report on whether a decision point has branched in all directions, providing information about branch coverage. System performance information is also provided, including statistics about particular variables e. g. their first value, last value, minimum and maximum values. Breakpoints can be defined for the system, so when a variable attains or exceeds a specific value, the test tool reports the occurrence. Some tools will stop when breakpoints are reached so that the tester can examine the contents of memory or specific data items, as it is possible to change values as the test progresses. Any information captured during the test can be used to provide information about control flow. Another automated tool, analysers, are similar to monitors, except that they can also evaluate captured data to prescribed criteria. A test coverage analyser records the number of each statement executed during a test step and notifies us if certain routines or statements are not executed. A timing analyser works with predefined areas or memory or code and tracks the amount of time spent in each area as system functions are performed. This type of tracking can be useful during performance testing when timing requirements are checked. Tools that simulate functions of hardware or other externals by presenting to a system all characteristics of a system or device without actually having the system/device available. This is particularly useful if another company is developing part of a system; this part can be simulated to allow you to test your own part. The simulator can sometimes be more useful than the device itself as all data regarding the devices' state throughout the test can be stored, aiding in error location. Simulators also help with stress and volume testing, since it can be programmed to load the system with substantial amounts of data, requests or users. Generally, simulators give control over the test conditions, allowing you to perform tests that may otherwise be dangerous or impossible. Test management tools are used to control and co-ordinate testing for each of the major testing steps. Tools in this category manage and co-ordinate regression testing, perform comparisons that ascertain differences between actual and expected output and conduct batch testing of programs with interactive human-computer interfaces. In addition to the functions noted above, many test management tools also serve as generic test drivers. A test driver reads one or more test cases from a testing file, formats the test data to conform to the needs of the software under test, and then invokes the software to be tested. The C/S environment demands specialised testing tools that exercise the graphical user interface and the network communications requirements for client and server. This category can be sub-divided into the following functions: Reverse engineering to specification tools which take source code as input and generate graphical structured analysis and design models, ‘where-used' lists and other design information. Code restructuring and analysis tools that analyse program syntax, generate a control flow graph and automatically generate a structured program. On-line system reengineering tools which are used to modify on-line database systems. Many of the above tools are limited to specific programming languages, although most major languages are addressed and require some degree of interaction with the software engineer. Next generation reverse and forward engineering tools will make much stronger use of artificial intelligence techniques, applying a knowledge base that is application domain specific, i. e. a set of decomposition rules that would apply to all programs in a particular application area. The AI component will assist in system decomposition and reconstruction, but will still require interaction with a software engineer throughout the reengineering cycle. Several testing aids can be combined into one automated tool; a test harness is a monitoring system that tracks test input data, passes it to the program or system being tested and records the resulting output. A test harness can also compare actual with expected output and report any discrepancies. Most test harness tools are environment specific by the nature of the process. Test data set generators can generate test data sets derived from the requirements modelling process. Used in conjunction with test harnesses they will provide a formal documented test environment. In most cases a combination of the above tools will improve chances that a delivered application performs the tasks expected correctly and reliably. All testing tools generate large amounts of information about an applications structure. This information must be interpreted and used to detect and rectify subtle logic and structure error. There is a large amount of interest in producing automated support for this interpretation process; to pinpoint possible problem areas and suggest further lines of investigation. With the exception of Interpreters, that are still in development, the above categories of testing tools are available commercially. There are a large number of products available produced by many different companies, so two case studies have been selected to give an impression of the testing tools commercially available. Where possible, the category of testing tools as described above that each product fits into has been added in brackets after the product name. The current products available from this French company are aimed at user interface testing and there are three product lines. The first, UniTest, is designed to perform unit testing of embedded systems. It can develop test scripts that can run on native, simulator, emulator or target platforms. ATTOL's second product, SystemTest, automates the production and exploitation of integration and validation tests for systems. Both of these two products can be integrated with ATTOL's final product, Coverage (test coverage analyser), which is a code coverage tool that is designed to obtain the level of code coverage during the unit or integration testing. TestStudio is one of four products that make up the software development product, Rational Suite. The TestStudio product is itself made up of other Rational Products. Rational Robot provides thorough testing of an entire application, Rational TestFactory automatically detects run-time errors without user assistance and generates optimal scripts for regression testing. Rational Purify locates hard-to-find run-time errors that cause program crashes. Rational Quantify pinpoints performance ‘bottlenecks' in applications and Rational PureCoverage (test coverage analyser) identifies untested code and provides code-coverage analysis. The nature of many products available is that they perform testing to meet user requirements. To do this they are often a combination of several types of testing tool, which makes it difficult to identify specific categories of testing. However, many of the products available did require the system or application being tested to actually be run, whether on a simulator or real-time, suggesting dynamic testing is used more than static testing. There are however, a huge range of testing tools commercially available, combining many different testing methods.